Physical Aging Ectocranial Suture Closure

Introduction Forensic science revolutionized crime investigation strategies (White Folkens, 2005). There is no need to elaborate on its importance because it is a well-known fact that innocent people are convicted while guilty criminals are acquitted if forensic anthropologists fail to provide accurate analysis of the evidence collected by law enforcement agencies (Katzenberg Saunders, 2008).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Physical Aging: Ectocranial Suture Closure specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One essential aspect of forensic science is the ability to determine the age of the skeletal remains at the time of death (Lieberman, 2011). The technique is called the ectocranial suture closure method. Traditional adult skeletal aging methods focused on four main regions of the human body: 1) the pubic symphysis; 2) auricular surface; 3) sternal rib ends; 4) cranial sutures (Cox Mays, 2000, p. 70). However, the f ocus of this presentation is on ectocranial suture closure. Cranial suture closure is a technique discovered in the 16th century. However, it was considered as an unreliable adult skeletal aging method. However, anthropologists Meindl and Lovejoy re-evaluated the whole process and came up with a revised method called the ectocranial suture closure method. Methodology This particular technique calls for the examination of the state of closure of the sutures of the skull at defined points on the cranium (Meindl Lovejoy, 1985). There are two major steps in the application of Meindl and Lovejoy’s revised endocranial suture closure method. In the first step, the anthropologist uses a complete skull and takes data measurements from a specific suture observation site called the Ectocranial Vault sutures. In the second step, the anthropologist takes data measurement from another suture observation site called the Ectocranial Lateral-Anterior sutures. These two steps comprise the ect ocranial suture closure method. After the establishment of the specific suture observation sites, the anthropologist will gather data using the revised method developed by Meindl and Lovejoy.Advertising Looking for report on aging? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The ten specific sites are listed as follows: 1) Mid-lambdoid; 2) Lambda; 3) Obelion; 4) Anterior sagittal;5) Bregma; 6) Mid-coronal; 7) Pterion; 8) Sphenofrontal; 9) Inferior Sphenofrontal; and 10) Superior Sphenofrontal (DiGangi Moore, 2012, p.78). These ten sites were divided into the â€Å"vault system† and the â€Å"lateral-anterior system† (Steele Bramblett, 1988, p.57). It is imperative that the anthropologist accurately identifies the specific location of the sutures in accordance to the framework developed by Meindl and Lovejoy. The following information can assist the anthropologist in determining the actual suture locations (see Table 1). Points of the Skull Definition of Terms Mid-lambdoid Midpoint of each half of the lamboid suture Lambda At lambda in pars lambdica of sagittal and pars lambdica of lamboid sutures Obelion At obelion in parts obelica of the sagittal suture Anterior sagittal Point on the sagittal suture at the juncture of the anterior one third and posterior two-thirds of its length (usually near the juncture of the pars bregmatica and pars verticis of the sagittal suture Bregma At bregma in pars bregmatica of the coronal and pars bregmatica of the sagittal sutures Mid-coronal Midpoint of each half of the coronal suture in parts complicate of the coronal suture Pterion At pterion, the region of the upper portion of the greater wing of the sphenoid, usually the point at which the parietosphenoid suture meets the frontal bone Sphenofrontal Midpoint of the sphenofrontal suture Inferior Sphenofrontal Point of the sphenotemporal suture lying at its intersection with a line connecting bot h articular tubercles of the temporomandibular joint Superior Sphenofrontal Point on the sphenotemporal suture lying 2 cm below its juncture with the parietal bone Table 1. Definitions of suture observation sites. After the specific locations were identified, the anthropologist uses a four-point scoring system. The scoring system uses the following criteria: 0 = no observable closure; 1 = minimal closure; 2 = significant closure; and 3 = complete obliteration (DiGangi Moore, 2012, p.78). After observing the ten specific sites, the anthropologist will use a table of composite scores and a mean age and standard deviation for each score (DiGangi Moore, 2012, p.79). The anthropologist compares the values generated and uses the table to determine the estimated age of the skeleton. Research Findings The ectocranial suture closure technique should become one of the major age determination techniques made available to anthropologists. The technique is based on a reliable framework. I t is advantageous to use this particular technique especially when it comes to determining the age group. Moreover, this technique provides the capability to determine the age of the skeleton if other techniques are non-available. At the same time this technique can be used to validate age estimated generated by other techniques.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Physical Aging: Ectocranial Suture Closure specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The ectocranial suture closure can help provide an age estimate of the skeletal remains. But scientists are unable to provide a clear explanation when it comes to the correlation of suture closure and age. Another major disadvantage of this technique is the broad age intervals. The broad range intervals can be a problem when it comes to forensics. Forensic anthropologists are faced with the challenge to provide accurate estimates of age while taking into consideration human varia tion in the aging process (Dirkmaat, 2012 p. 203). According to one commentary, â€Å"the narrower, or more precise the age estimate given, the more helpful it can be to law enforcement when eliminating possible identities† (Dirkmaat, 2012 p.203). Critics are quick to point out that this particular technique is an unreliable skeletal aging method (Meindl Lovejoy, 1985 p. 57). Detractors rejected cranial suture closure and remarked that it cannot be trusted (Meindl Lovejoy, 1985, p. 57). Nevertheless, after an in-depth study on different techniques, it was discovered that â€Å"no single skeletal indicator of age at death is ever likely to accurately reflect the many factors which accumulate with chronological age, each of which contribute valuable information to the age estimate† (Meindl Lovejoy, 1985, p. 65). It o therefore important to useIt is therefore imperative to reconsider the value of the ectocranial suture closure as an alternative tool in the determinatio n of the age of the skeleton at the time of death. Conclusion The ectocranial suture closure technique is not reliable when it comes to precise age estimates. Anthropologists said that there are broad age intervals. At the same time they cannot provide a clear explanation with regards to the correlation between suture closure and age of the skeleton. But this technique is useful when it comes to the determination of age groups, whether the skeleton belongs to a child or an adult. Furthermore, this technique is useful when it comes to the validation of age estimates provided by other skeletal age determination techniques.Advertising Looking for report on aging? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More References Cox, M Mays, S 2000, Human osteology: in archaeology and forensic science, Oxford University Press, UK. DiGangi, E Moore, M 2012, Research methods in human skeletal biology, Academic Press, UK. Dirkmaat, D 2012, A companion to forensic anthropology, Blackwell Publishing, UK. Katzenberg, M Saunders, S 2008, Biological anthropology of the human skeleton, John Wiley Sons, New Jersey. Lieberman, D 2011, The evolution of the human head, Harvard University Press, MA. Meindl, R Lovejoy, O1985, ‘Ectocranial suture closure: a revised method for the determination of skeletal age at death based on the lateral-anterior sutures’, The American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 68 no.1, pp. 57-66. Steele, D C Bramblett, 1988, The anatomy and biology of the human skeleton, Texas A M University Press, TX. White, T Folkens, P, 2005, The human bone manual, Elsevier Academic Press, UK. This report on Physical Aging: Ectocranial Suture Closure was written and submitted by user Ed1s0n to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Orbital Definition and Example

Orbital Definition and Example Orbital Definition In chemistry and quantum mechanics, an orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of an electron, electron pair, or (less commonly) nucleons. An orbital may also be called an atomic orbital or electron orbital. Although most people think of an orbit regarding a circle, the probability density regions that may contain an electron may be spherical, dumbbell-shaped, or more complicated three-dimensional forms. The purpose of the mathematical function is to map the probability of the location of an electron in a region around (or theoretically inside) an atomic nucleus. An orbital may refer to an  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹electron cloud having an energy state described by given values of the n, â„“, and mâ„“ quantum numbers. Every electron is described by a unique set of quantum numbers. An orbital can contain two electrons with paired spins and is often associated with a specific region of an atom. The s orbital, p orbital, d orbital, and f orbital refer to orbitals that have an angular momentum quantum number  Ã¢â€žâ€œÃ‚   0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The letters s, p, d, and f come from the descriptions of alkali metal spectroscopy lines as appearing sharp, principal, diffuse, or fundamental. After s, p, d, and f, orbital names beyond  Ã¢â€žâ€œÃ‚  Ã‚  3 are alphabetical (g, h, i, k, ...). The letter j is omitted because it isnt different from i in all languages. Orbital Examples The 1s2 orbital contains two electrons. It is the lowest energy level (n 1), with an angular momentum quantum number â„“ 0. The electrons in the 2px orbital of an atom are generally found within a dumbbell-shaped cloud about the x-axis. Properties of Electrons in Orbitals Electrons display wave-particle duality, which means they exhibit some properties of particles and some characteristics of waves. Particle  Properties Electrons have particle-like properties. For example, a single electron has a -1 electrical charge.There are an integer number of electrons around an atomic nucleus.Electrons move between orbitals like particles. For example, if a photon of light is absorbed by an atom, only a single electron changes energy levels. Wave Properties At the same time, electrons behave like waves. Although its common to think of electrons as individual solid particles, in many ways they are more like a photon of light.Its not possible to pinpoint the location of an electron, only describe the probability of finding one within a region described by a wave function.Electrons dont orbit the nucleus like Earth orbits the Sun. The orbit is a standing wave, with the energy levels like harmonics on vibrating string. An electrons lowest energy level is like the fundamental frequency of a vibrating string, while higher energy levels are like harmonics. The region that might contain an electron is more like a cloud or atmosphere, except a spherical probability only applies when an atom only has a single electron! Orbitals and the Atomic Nucleus Although discussions about orbitals almost always refer to electrons, there are also energy levels and orbitals in the nucleus. The different orbitals give rise to nuclear isomers and metastable states.

Reference Checks Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reference Checks - Assignment Example dit-screens, full-blown background investigations, pre-employment written skills (aptitude) tests, and written personality-profile tests† (Perritt and Perritt, 6). In Europe, there is a more democratic practice of prospective employees themselves providing information â€Å"about themselves† (Perritt and Perritt, 11). In case of any unlawful behavior by employees, this document can be used as the employer to validate his/her innocence in the matter. US multi-national employers often conduct â€Å"written pre-hire tests† to assess whether the candidate has â€Å"the right skill sets or aptitudes† (Perritt and Perritt, 13). But in Europe, this kind of a test is not favored because of the â€Å"cultural and human resources† issues involved (Perritt and Perritt, 13). It is argued in European countries that such a test will evoke comprehension problems, translation issues and cultural confusions in overseas employees (Perritt and Perritt, 13). As the appl icant test responses are usually â€Å"private data†, in Europe, such tests will be against the data privacy laws (Perritt and Perritt, 15). Also, in Europe, there are severe restrictions on firing employees (Perritt and Perritt, 17). This makes the hiring mistakes tougher to rectify (Perritt and Perritt, 17). Even in such a situation, the European companies are known to stay away from intruding background check. There is also the instance of pre-hire drug tests, the approach to which US and European context differ greatly. In US, such tests are prevalent, while in Europe, they are unheard of (Perritt and Perritt, 3). But in Europe, â€Å"interviews with applicants’ past employers† is a tool that companies use to verify the background of their employees (Perritt and Perritt, 4). But in US, such an act may invite defamation litigations and misrepresentation suits for the previous employees and so they never disclose negative information (Perritt and Perritt,

Unit 36 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Unit 36 - Coursework Example This made the recording of business transactions and activities an important factor. In recent years, accounting has undergone several transformations; among its purposes include having a permanent record of all of the business’ transactions, keeping records of income and expenses, and keeping records of assets and liabilities for ascertaining financial position of the business. Another purpose is to keep control of the expenses while maximizing profits, keep records of customers and the amount they owe to the business, know suppliers and their owing to the business, and eventually to have information for legal and tax purposes in relation to the location of the business (Juan 3). In this paper the chosen organization is Apple Inc. Like every other MNCs, Apple also publish their Cash flow statement, Profit and Loss statement and balance sheet every year. It is not only helpful for the investor to analyse the performance of the company but at the same time experts also make the ir prediction based on these report regarding how the organization is going to perform in coming years. According to Collins Richards, all income received and all expenditure spend in a business should always be accounted for either in terms of capital or revenue (42). The difference between capital and revenue items of expenditure and income is the total amount of wealth found in a business that has subsequently been used to produce income. In the books of accounts, capital does not change – it is maintained intact - separated from other forms of finance with a clear clarification showing losses and profits. Revenue items in the books of accounts on the other hand are either income or the expenditure showing the daily business transactions. Income is represented by profits while expenditure is represented by losses. As profits withdrawn from the income reduce the available capital, the losses

International risk management Essay Example for Free

International risk management Essay A Letter of Credit is a document issued by a bank at the request of its customer promising to pay the exporter for the goods and services provided that the exporter provides all the documents as stated in the terms and conditions. To the exporter a letter of credit guarantees payment and reduces production risk if the buyer has a change of his order. It ensures that buyers cannot refuse to pay due to complain raised over the goods. It also provides a chance to get financing incase of delayed payment. The importer can structure their payment plan, it helps confirm the shipment of the goods, helps them reduce pre-payment, it as well ensures that the exporter delivers exactly what the importer required it also creates confidence for bigger transactions in future. A bill of exchange is a document that acts as the evidence of a debt and informs the importer to pay the exporter a certain fixed sum of money at a certain specific time. They act as a guarantee that goods of certain stated specifications have been shipped and that and that that require payment. The Export-Import Bank of United States of America helps in financing sales of goods and services by proving guarantee of working capital loans, it helps crate jobs through export of goods, the bank guarantees the repayment of loans to foreign purchasers, it also provides credit insurance for U. S. exporters against. The disadvantage of the Export-Import Bank is that for it to support the products at least 50 percent of them must be from U. S and they should not have any negative effect to the economy. It also does not offer help to importers outside U. S. In conclusion, the letter of credit, the bill of exchange and the Export-Import Bank are very important for the import-Export business to prosper not only in U. S but also any where in the world.

Difficulties Attending College :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Difficulties Attending College Today everyone thinks in order to succeed financially in life they need to have a college education, or at least most of the time this is true. I personally think that despite the many difficulties that a person is faced with they can overcome their troubles somehow, even though sometimes they can not help but think otherwise. I, myself have three different reasons why people find it difficult to stay in college. For one sometimes they still have to keep on working while going to school. Two, they have children. Lastly, there's just not enough time for anything in their life, like they can't mentally or physically handle school and their lifestyle. Take me for example, a college student and a mother of one. I find it hard to successfully attend college and keep a job at the same time. My family and myself, right now, are at the bottom of the barrel. When we moved back from Tennessee, we had to use all the money we had saved. After paying one month and a halt of rent, both phone bills, and the electricity bill, we had to turn around scrape for food and the following months rent, not including our other bills. At first it was too hard. We felt like ends were not meeting, so I had to find a job. So now the way it works at my house is we both split the bills. My fiancà ©e has the really big bills like the rent and the insurance payment while I have the light bill, both phone bills, cable, and the internet bill. We both share the food bill, household items, and clothing. It is essential for me to work to help make ends meet. This is an example of one of the ways some households work. Even though I sometimes have a tough time with s chool I still manage to stay in school. This is one family that needs to have two incomes to make ends meet. The second reason why I think people find it difficult to succeed in college is because of children. For example, children need to go to the doctor's office, or to get shots, or your children are on vacation and you're not. Even when your children get out of school for the day and they are too little to take care of themselves, this is a common problem.

Johannes Brahms symphony no. 4

Johannes Brahms symphony no. 4, opus 98, is a masterpiece that stays in the annals of history of music and the history of symphony. Completed in the 19-th century, it had such glorious predecessors as Beethoven’s symphonies. Therefore, in the times of Brahms, the symphony was considered the proper of great Beethoven and anybody who had courage to compose in this genre would inevitably face the possibility to be compared with Beethoven.Johannes Brahms worried that he was not worthy of the musical tradition set by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. One of the most unfortunate effects of his lack of confidence was expressed in an unwillingness to compose a symphony because he was afraid of being compared unfavourably to those masters, waiting until he was 43 years old to complete his First Symphony. However, once he had completed that initial symphony, he quickly adapted to the form, producing his remaining three symphonies in the space of only nine years.Each seemed to be more succes sful than its predecessors were; each introduced more depth and innovation from the most complex of the 19-th century composers. Just as Brahms's First and Second symphonies appeared in rapid succession as a contrasting pair, so did the Third and Fourth. The Third was finished in the summer of 1883 and the Fourth was begun the following summer. The first mention of the Fourth Symphony is in a letter dated 19 August 1884 from Brahms to his publisher, Fritz Simrock; the work was completed about a year later at Miirzzuschlag in Styria.In October 1885 Brahms and Ignaz Briill gave a two-piano reading of it for a small group of friends including the critic Eduard Hanslick, the surgeon Theodor Billroth, and the historian and Haydn scholar C. F. Pohl. Brahms conducted the first orchestral performance at Meiningen on 25 October 1885 . It is very interesting to observe Brahms's progress as a symphonist. He lived in the time of romanticism in music, when considerations of form gave place to su bjective expression. F.Liszt was then creating his symphonic poems and R. Wagner produced his amazing music dramas – all works strongly colored by literary and poetic ideas, and by a very personal attitude on the part of the composer. Brahms, in his First symphony, if not an outright romanticist, is yet â€Å"romantic† in his attitude, just as Beethoven in his Fifth symphony. Later we see Brahms's progression backward – from the â€Å"romantic† to the â€Å"classic† stress. The Fourth symphony is a pure classic masterpiece.However, the symphony is not only a work of design; it has a subjective undercurrent behind itself. It is perhaps significant that Brahms, ordinarily certain of himself and his work, had misgivings and questionings about this symphony. Some find the symphony an expression of pessimism. They say that it is bitter, that it drips melancholy like the yew tree, that its thoughts are of death. In fact, by that time Brahms had lost his mother who died of a heart attack. He devoted this symphony to the memory of his mother. But pessimism is not despair.At the time when Brahms wrote this symphony, his thoughts were turning towards his own end which was near, and death must have appeared as it should appear to all of us, as a tender friend and a supreme consoler. Brahms's symphonic work embraces all that is tragic and glorious in his music. There is tragedy even in the most wonderful of these movements, where we hear yearning for things gone beyond recall, but more especially in those where he strives to renew the traditions of the classics and proves splendidly that inherited forms may be filled with new matter .Nevertheless, one may safely predict that those portions of his work which show a master's discipline and noble intention as perhaps the most impressive marks of his character, will not be held in so great and lasting an affection as those where he is wholly himself, and where only his pure and great heart, so full of riches and yet so closely guarded, is heard to beat. He deliberately took a path that led him away from the land of romance to seek the land of Bach and Beethoven with all the ardor of his soul.But the spell of the blue flower was stronger. He fancied that he had eschewed the enchantment, but this was a delusion, for he remained a romantic all his life, a dreamy enthusiast, a deep feeling recluse, who clothed in new magical sounds the voices of rustling woodlands, the radiant eyes of virginal queens, the scattered tones of lost love-songs–all this, and his own life, blessed by sorrows and raptures. It is there that he is irresistible and unforgettable.Where he played the part of â€Å"heir† he had too little to squander, though he won and consolidated precious treasure enough. Only as the eternal youth, as one wrestling and longing and drinking from abundant wellsprings, as one of the beloved fairy-tale princes of music who ever and again awaken to deliver s leeping princesses, did he in truth find the land of Bach and of Beethoven. To many listeners, the Third Symphony might have seemed like the natural goal of Brahms's development as a symphonist because it combined the simple characters of folksong and romantic.It added an intense instrumental idiom and deep sense of coherence and overall structure, resolving its tensions at the close in a manner increasingly characteristic of the expression of his most profound songs. Yet any such impression would soon have been dispelled by the symphony, which followed shortly after in 1885, for here he recalls the wealth of ideas, which characterize the Second Symphony and the earnestness, and sense of structural culmination of the First Symphony. Yet here the drama is of a different kind.It is not the classic nineteenth-century struggle from minor to major, in Brahms's case full of romantic symbols in its final stages, but rather an abstract drama, which reaches its climax through the sheer intel lectual rigor and energy of its finale rather than through any conventional symbols. It ends securely in the key in which it began, E minor. And if the Third Symphony had gained something of the personal quality of its opening from the memories of Schubert and Schumann, this goes back to memories of Beethoven and Bach.For, not only does the finale take Bach as its starting point, but the first movement takes Beethoven. As has been noted, the first subject clearly draws on the slow movement of the ‘Hammerklavier' Sonata (bars 78-86) where an identical outline appears as a consequence of the evolving influence of the interval of the third. Yet it comes through an entirely Brahms’ mediation. The setting is very close to the somber opening in which he was soon to place the first of the Motets op.110, the same key and broad shape expressing the text ‘Ich aber bin elend' – ‘But Lord, I am wretched'. Yet the symphony's is a more animated, complex type of exp ression whose distinctive two-note phrasing actually finds its closest parallel in a piece in total stylistic contrast to the motet -the Waltz in D minor, op. 39 no. 9. From this very personal stylistic chemistry, Brahms builds a movement and a work whose lofty style is closest to the Tragic Overture, a greater example of the ‘sublime style' noted in the great choral works with orchestra.And from them it takes much of its orchestral character, especially the fullness of Brahms' scoring, and the telling use of the flute, especially at bar 128 of the finale – surely a Grecian symbol. While Brahms has long since parted company with the storm and stress of the First symphony, the accents of the Fourth are in the highest degree charged with the resignation and the profound understanding that his own earnest nature and the passage of the years had brought him, and the nobility that existed under his crusty exterior.In viewing the work as a whole, its background again provides a key to its special nature and sense of direction. Indeed, it may well reveal the reverse case to that of the First Symphony, for even if it seems clear that it was the resolution of the first movement's implications that provided the compositional problem of the earlier work, it appears likely that the finale was here the starting point and thus determinant of the work's structural nature. And even if other ideas existed at this earlier stage, the special nature of the finale provided the dominant focus for their working and shape.Much of the Fourth symphony is melancholy and lamentful, but it is relieved by the consolatory beatitude of the andante and the elevating stateliness of the conclusion. The austerity with which the composer has been reproached—in many instances unjustly—is here pronounced. The solidity of the structure may be admired, but the structure itself is granitic and unrelieved. The symphony has not the epic grandeur of the first, the geniality of the second, the wealth of varied beauty that distinguishes the third.Although the precise date is not known, Brahms had shown interest in the chaconne bass of the finale of Bach's Cantata No. 150 â€Å"Nach Dir, Herr Verlanget mich† some time before the symphony's appearance. The conductor Siegfried Ochs recalls him demonstrating to Hans von Bulow the structure of the Bach movement, to which von Bulow responded coolly, arguing that it needed more than voices. Brahms agreed, commenting: â€Å"What would you say to a symphonic movement written on this theme one day? But it is too lumpish, too straightforward. It would have to be chromatically altered in some way.† Just how the alteration was effected is clear from the work, where Brahms extends the model from its five-bar length to eight bars, substituting equal dotted minims for its minim-crotchet pattern and creating a climax in the chromatic alteration of A sharp. Now it appears as leading note to the dominant, B. But how the work as a whole stood in his mind at this earlier stage is not clear. Brahms was aware of the possibility that a variation finale can be assumed from the model of Beethoven, and the St Antoni Variations had already presented a basso ostinato variation finale.Yet the precise nature of a finale, which reflected both stimuli – that of a symphonic design in a harmonically restricted form – must have occupied him for long before a solution became clear. In considering the problems, Brahms drew on a considerable knowledge of the form of the chaconne and passacaglia, as has earlier been shown. In the actual period of the work's completion, he acknowledged special interest in the Organ Passacaglia in G minor by Georg Muffat, describing it to Elizabeth von Herzogenberg in 1883 as very fine and acknowledging possession of a copy.His work on the Couperin Edition for Chrysander also gave him an acquaintance with an example from the very different tradition of the French c lavecinists through the form of the Rondeau Passacaille. But the movement for which he had the deepest feeling was the Bach Chaconne for unaccompanied violin. He wrote to Clara Schumann, to whom the arrangement for the piano, left hand, was dedicated, in the following terms: For me the Chaconne is one of the most incredible pieces of music. Using a single system for a little instrument, the man writes a whole world of the deepest and most powerful expression.If I ask myself if I had written this piece – been able to conceive it – I know for certain the emotions excited would have driven me mad. If one does not have a great violinist at hand, the most exquisite of joys is surely simply to let the Chaconne ring in one's mind. But the piece certainly entices one to occupy oneself with it somehow. From this, he concludes that the only comparable experience is to play it with the parallel restrictions of left hand alone. It seems interesting that in referring to the other w ays of imagining the work recreated he mentions the orchestra.It is not difficult to see the manner and structure of this Chaconne, which he knew so intimately, mixing with his transformation of the Bach cantata bass to provide the foundations of a movement through which both vocal and instrumental limitations are transcended in his most powerful variation structure. Heinrich Reimann gives a short description of the symphony: â€Å"A theme of the second movement constantly returns in varied form, from which the chief theme, the staccato figure given to the wind, and the melodious song of the violoncellos are derived.The third movement, allegro giocoso, sports with old-fashioned harmonies, which should not be taken too seriously† . Seen against the background of Brahms's earlier variations, this movement is unique in its observation of a clear A B A – Coda form. The contrast is provided by changes in dynamics, frequently in mode, and partly in meter. The return of the o pening introduces variation both thematically and in the scope of harmonic movement within the tight restriction of the model, taken even further in the coda.All the previous variations are continuous, though the contrast of mode to major is established from the Variation on an Original Theme. The Bach Chaconne therefore assumes great interest in its adoption of a ternary outline through contrast of mode, in its variation of harmony at the reprise (though the theme is not recalled) and in its length – both movements building to thirty variations from an eight-bar model. The form of the Chaconne is also crucial to understanding Brahms's harmonic methods.Although elements of passacaglia are used in this movement – that is of a repeated ground bass ostinato – the chief spirit of the movement is that of harmonic retention, from which the composer can dramatically move for effect. The model is compounded of Bach's bass in modified form as upper part with a Brahmsâ₠¬â„¢ bass in which descending thirds are prominent. This provides the model for the first four variations and the background to the reprise, with its increasingly free harmonic working until Brahms breaks completely away from the previous patterns in the coda, loosening the original phrasing.The intervening harmony is built either on the ground (variations 4-11, 14-16), or on pedal variants, as in the central part, variations 12-13. Thus, as in earlier variation movements, there are two harmonic models with other freer types, though it is the first, with the theme in the upper part, which has the role of articulating the large structure. This represents, therefore, a considerably more complex form than its immediate predecessor, the ostinato variations of the St Antoni Variations.In fact, Brahms brings to fulfillment the inherent influence of the chaconne, noted as early as the variations of the B flat Sextet though with the added aspect of the passacaglia reflected in the Second Se renade and the St Antoni Variations, together with the outline of sonata form. It is the latter aspect that creates the variation of the reprise, since development cannot be used in the subdued central section. Clearly, such a distinctive structure could not have provided the symphonic climax without intimate relations with the other movements.The observation of the contrapuntal connection between the descending thirds of variation 30 and the first subject of the first movement is only one of many which could be made, for this work is perhaps more subtly and comprehensively integrated than any other. Not only are thirds omnipresent in the work's thematic material – as in the bass of the model – but many other links exist, including the anticipation of the ground in the first subject (bars 9-15). Most impressive, however, is the special harmonic language of the work, which is drawn from the harmony of the model.Both plagal and Phrygian progressions contribute further to the deeply archaic quality of much of the music. For example, the first subject is built on plagal progressions and the movement ends with a very impressive plagal cadence enhanced by pedal. The harmonic language of the second movement is even more special in its modal associations, as will be shown. All these features serve to support the more obvious surface function of variation. For the principle of successive variation, which dominates the finale also, soaks the work as a whole.The links are clearest in the first movement for two principal reasons: the structure of the movement as a whole and, directly related to it, the nature of the first subject. Brahms's tendency to recall the opening material after the recapitulation where no repeat is incorporated finds a particularly plain expression in this movement, which brings an approach associated with finales – those of the First and Third Symphonies and of the Piano Quintet into the context of a symphonic first movement.Y et the method is here different, for this is no conflated development/recapitulation structure, but rather a modification of the conventional scheme, since the recapitulation follows the third tonic statement of the idea at bar 246. The special form arises from the special nature of the main subject itself, a lyric paragraph whose essential sixteen bar structure is extended by internal variation to create a sectional impression – the sense of a model which demands repetition in a way quite unlike the main subjects of the other symphonies. Thus, the movement assumes a variation-aspect at two levels.Viewed most broadly, it falls into three sections, closely related by their presentation of the same passage. Although the third statement is made more elusive by the recall of its opening phrases in augmentation, linked by figuration in the strings, the overall effect is clear when the theme resumes at bar 246. As far as the sections themselves are concerned, they also appear stron gly variational through the immediate repetition of the first theme, that of the development offering an alternative to that of the exposition, bars 145-152 comparing with bars 1-7.Thus, Brahms draws on his earlier tendency to construct the transition by variation of the first subject (compare with the Second Symphony) into a much broader context. In the sections of passing variation, which have become so characteristic, although never with the clarity and deep thematicism of, for example, bars 80-6 or 95-8, the development draws so often on variation that it directly recalls the finale.Thus, after the varied repeat of the opening of the development, bars 169-84 present another section of clear variational identity, here through motive variation of the preceding bars treated in a stretto which quickly removes the sense of accentual identity, offering yet a further example of how Brahms learned from Beethoven the art of displacing the beat through the relentless repetition of a simpl e figure. This passage is complemented at bar 192 by a more direct variation of the opening subject, the section again alternating with the marcato figure of the transition, which serves to direct and articulate the music's progress.At bar 119, the finale is even more clearly foreshadowed, mediating between the variation and the work's first subject, which it clearly outlines, drawing particularly on the original flute parts to ensure connection. In turn, the following passage from bar 237 varies the following bars, focusing on a one-bar figure, whilst recalling the color-contrast of the variations, which lead to the reprise of the finale. It is inherent in such a structure that radical alterations of the recapitulation would have disturbed the variational relationship of the first three parts.Rather, as in the finale, it is the coda, which exhibits the development quality with the most rapid modulations and intense treatment of ideas. Yet variation remains the chief model. The powe rful statement of the first subject at bar 394 is remarkable in its transformation. The theme appears in canon between the outer parts, actually retaining its identity for far longer than the ear might suggest (14 bars in all) before a bridge to an intense treatment of the transition idea of bar 414.This remarkable intensity is achieved through a use of stretto, in which Brahms seems to press to extremes the possible relationship between the harmonies permissible in his style and the logic of the contrapuntal movement, a quality that he shared to a remarkable degree with Mozart. In a period, which includes some of Brahms's most powerful first-movement codas, this is surely the most impressive in its nature and its structural function. Of the impressive central movements with which Brahms completes his overall scheme, the second relates most clearly to the principles outlined.Indeed, its leisurely first section from bar 5 parallels that of the first in its relation to earlier works. An eight-bar theme of the simplest phrasing returns after a nine-bar digression to complete an exposition in simple A B A form. The following transition proceeds again by simple variation to establish, through ideas, which relate to the parallel part of the first movement. The dominant of B for the second subject, after which there is a further variation of the first theme with descending wind figures reflects the first subject of the work and strings employ pizzicato.Bar 74 initiates an imitative development very much in the spirit of that of the finale of op. 18, after which the second subject completes the conflated scheme: 1 – tr 2 – 1 – dev – 2 – coda. Yet its straightforwardness comes into a completely different perspective when set in its harmonic context. It can be seen as perhaps the boldest and most far-reaching of Brahms's experiments with modal effects. For, the opening partly suggests a tonic C despite the preceding cadence, one interp rets the unison opening as rooted in the lower mediant of E minor.Yet at the end of the phrase, Brahms turns the closing E into the tonic of a modified sonata movement, which makes a conventional contrast (though now unusual for Brahms) with the dominant, B, for its second subject. Such an opening must have a consequence in a Brahms’ movement and the key of C returns in the closing bars as an alternate harmonization of the opening theme in succession to the chromatic harmonization of the theme in E. Thus, Brahms juxtaposes the keys of E and C through a common theme.The ‘framing' effect of the C tonality and its final resolution is evident. Whilst this passage can be seen as simply one of effect, the suggestion of a Phrygian tonality, it may also be seen in more far-reaching terms. For, unlike the other authentic modes, the dominant of the Phrygian is not on B, but on C, since it cannot form a perfect fifth from B to F sharp. Thus, though Brahms may well begin with a mer e ‘effect', the harmonic implications are readily grasped and he, though very briefly, actually contrives to close with a Phrygian aspect.The Austrian theorist Heinrich Schenker once stated that the capacity to write in the modes lay even beyond a genius like Beethoven, that the Lydian movement of op. 132 simply used modern tonality to suggest a mode through the omission of any B flat and other means. Is it not possible that Brahms's deep interest in the issue led him to go a little further in the attempt to unite modern tonality and the principles of modality in one movement? After such tonal stress, the key of the third movement appears inevitable.Yet in its manner, the movement stands in strong contrast to the parallel movements of the later works. As is often pointed out, Brahms avoids the scherzo-substitutes of his maturity for a scherzo of an individual nature -not a 6/8, but a driving 2/4 movement. Yet its character is surely not without precedent. Just as Brahms had dr awn on the ‘Hammerklavier' Sonata as the starting point for a reinterpretation of a powerful idea, so the deep historical background to this work leads him to draw on the second movement of the late Piano Sonata in A flat op.110 whose thematic outline complements its metrical character in providing his basis. Yet in no other sense does the form relate to tradition, for Brahms constructs a continuous movement, sustained by variation in which the Trio contrast is limited to a very brief passage from bar 178 to bar 198, which simply transforms the character of the opening, to play a part in the broader scheme. And now we are going to make a profound emotional analysis of the symphony.Let us take take the opening. The violins play a melody that starts as a series of two-note sighs, each sigh consisting either of a descending third (for example, B to G) or of the same interval inverted into an ascending sixth (for example, E to C, but going up to the next-highest C rather than down ). Woodwinds echo these figures, but as chords, with the two notes played simultaneously.It is hard for us to think of a lovelier, more inviting opening to a symphony – of course, its familiarity help. Something preparatory, even if it were only two measures of unison B, would help listeners find their way in. This opening is immediately followed by a second statement of the melody, this time in broken octaves and in dialogue between first and second violins, with elaborate decorative material in violas and cellos. This was thought exceedingly difficult to unravel.